Quarter century of hydrogen movement 1974–2000
T. Nejat Veziroglu
Clean Energy Research Institute, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, P.O. Box 248294, Coral Gables, FL 33124–0622, USA
Abstract
A quarter of a century has passed since the beginning of the Hydrogen Energy Movement. Over the past 25 years, there have been accomplishments on every front — from the acceptance of the concept as an answer to energy and environment related global problems — to research, development and commercialization. The Hydrogen Energy System has now taken firm roots. Activities towards the implementation are accelerating.
1. Introduction
It was just a little over a quarter of a century ago, during the first international conference on Hydrogen Energy, the Hydrogen Economy Miami Energy Conference, or the THEME Conference for short, held on 18–20 March 1974, in Miami Beach, FL, USA, when, on the afternoon of the second day, a small group got together: this group later named the "Hydrogen Romantics", consisted of Cesare Marchetti, John Bockris, Tokio Ohta, Bill Van Vorst, Anibal Martinez, Walter Seifritz, Hussein Abdel-Aal, Bill Escher, Bob Zweig, the late Kurt Weil, myself and a few other enthusiasts, whose names escape me (Table 1). There was a passionate, yet deliberate debate. It was agreed that the Hydrogen Energy System (Fig. 1) was an idea whose time had arrived. It was the permanent solution to the depletion of conventional fuels. It was the permanent solution to the global environmental problems.
Then the discussion turned to whether there was a need for a formal organization. It was Anibal Martinez of Venezuela (incidentally the one who took part in setting up the petroleum cartel (OPEC), who urged the founding of a society dedicated to crusade for the establishment of what seemed to be to the gathering, and which later proved to be, the inevitable and universal energy system. It was ironic that he was proposing the establishment of an organization, which would make OPEC obsolete. The rest is history. IAHE was established by the end of that year, and started working in earnest.
2. Accomplishments
In spite of the fact that the conventional fuels are subsidized by the governments (even though they damage the health of the people, the well being of this planet, and the integrity of everything living and/or standing on it), and that equivalent subsidies have never been extended to hydrogen in the quarter of a century since the Hydrogen Movement began, hydrogen has still made significant progress and inroads in several directions in the energy field, due to its unmatched superior properties and characteristics as an energy carrier.
There has been progress on every front. All those who took part in the Movement, and all those who are presently taking part in this Movement, can feel very proud. There is every reason why we should celebrate this milestone, the Quarter Century of the Hydrogen Movement. Let us survey the happenings and achievements during this establishment period.
2.1. Conferences
One of the first activities of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy was to organize the biennial World Hydrogen Energy Conferences (WHECs) to provide a platform for the Hydrogen Energy community, for the scientists, energy engineers, environmentalists, decision makers, and the thinkers of the future of humankind and the Planet Earth.
WHEC Conferences have been held in most of the major countries around the world. The first WHEC Conference was held in Miami in 1976, and the others followed in two-year intervals in Zurich, Tokyo, Pasadena, Toronto, Vienna, Moscow, Honolulu, Paris, Cocoa Beach, Stuttgart, Buenos Aires and now in Beijing (Fig. 2).
I would like to add that, in parallel with the WHEC Conferences, there have been several other conferences organized, dedicated to specific applications of hydrogen, such as transportation, fuel cells, metal hydride batteries, hydrogen–metal interactions, etc. Also the number of national and international conferences devoted to hydrogen energy, and/or having sessions on hydrogen energy, are increasing in number.
2.2. Concept
Before the THEME Conference, little attention was paid to hydrogen as an energy carrier. The words "Hydrogen Energy", "Hydrogen Economy", "Hydrogen Energy System" were unknown even to most of those well-versed in energy.
Today, these words are well known and accepted (Fig. 3). Not only the scientists and engineers, but also the public at large, is becoming exposed to the concept. We see more and more articles and news items in the popular press about the environmental benefits of hydrogen, hydrogen as the fuel of the future, and the progress in hydrogen energy technologies.
The expressions "hydrogen energy", "hydrogen economy", "hydrogen energy system" have entered the scientific literature, newspapers and appear in everyday vocabulary.
2.3. Organizations
Twenty-five years ago, there was no organization dedicated to hydrogen energy. Today, national and international organizations, devoted to hydrogen energy or the application of its unique and particular properties, cover the globe from one end to the other; from the United States to Japan, from Sweden to Australia. As can be seen in Fig. 4, there are at least eighteen such organizations, and their numbers are growing. Many of these organizations are also forming alliances with environmental groups, establishing chapters, and educating the uninitiated.
2.4. Periodicals
A quarter of a century ago, there was no periodical dedicated to hydrogen energy. The International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (IJHE), which is the official journal of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), is in its 25th year. In 1975, it started as a quarterly. Three years later, it became bimonthly, and in 1982, was elevated to monthly. From time to time, we are increasing the page budget, because of the growing number of the papers being received. In addition to IJHE, there are now several other periodicals — not only in English, but also in many other languages (Fig. 5).
2.5. Books
The number of hydrogen energy-related books has shown an exponential growth over the past 25 years. The THEME and the WHEC Conference proceedings now stand at 45 volumes. In addition, dozens of volumes have been published on hydrogen energy, hydrogen-fuelled transportation, hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen–metal interactions in all the major languages of the world (Fig. 6).
2.6. Visual programs
Twenty-five years ago, we heard little or nothing in the visual media about hydrogen, with the exception that it was the fuel for the rockets in space programs. Since then, many imaginative and popular programs and documentaries have been produced by major television companies, hydrogen energy organizations, and companies working on the hydrogen energy technologies (Fig. 7).
2.7. Internet sites
Of course, before 1974, there were no internet sites at all, as well as no internet sites on Hydrogen Energy. Your association, the International Association for Hydrogen Energy, has established an internet site with the address of "www.iahe.org", giving information on the association, its goals and objectives, organization, activities, conferences, publications, memberships, etc. There are a score of other internet sites which are dedicated to giving information on Hydrogen Energy and on various organizations and companies related to Hydrogen Energy (Fig. 8). Their numbers are growing fast.
2.8. Electric power generation
Hydrogen is a unique fuel with unmatched properties. One of its unique properties is that it can be converted to electricity electrochemically in fuel cells with high efficiencies. It is not subject to the limitations of the Carnot Cycle, which is the case with the present-day thermal power plants — whether they burn fossil fuels or nuclear fuels. Because of this high utilization efficiency advantage of hydrogen, electric utilities, electric power equipment manufacturers and power industry research organizations have taken a particular interest in electric power generation through hydrogen fuel cells. Tokyo Electric Utility started experimenting with a 4.5 MW Pratt and Whitney fuel cell years ago. Now they have a second one in line — an 11 MW fuel cell power plant.
Major power generating equipment manufacturers have become involved in research, development, and marketing of hydrogen fuel cell power plants. Several new companies have been formed specifically to work on fuel cells (Fig. 9).
There are many types of fuel cells. They have different and unique properties making each type suitable for a particular application: phosphoric acid fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. Some of these have already been commercialized, demonstration projects have been started for some, and others are in the research and developmental stage. Westinghouse Company announced that they will market a 1 MW Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power Plant, with an efficiency of 70%, starting the year 2001.
In addition to having high utilization efficiencies, hydrogen fuel cells are clean (the only by-product being water), and quiet (i.e., no moving parts). They are versatile; they can be used for large-scale power generation in central power plants, as well as for small-scale electricity production in distributed mode. Because of all these unique characteristics, there is no doubt, that hydrogen fuel cell generating capacity will grow rapidly.
2.9. Surface vehicles
The unique properties of hydrogen make it suitable as a fuel for motive power, both for IC engine powered vehicles and electric powered vehicles. In addition to its unsurpassed environmental characteristics, the lean-burning property of hydrogen make it a suitable and efficient fuel for the stop-and-go type city driving. The Mazda Corporation of Japan has reported that hydrogen is the best fuel for Wänkel Engines.
The efficiency advantage of hydrogen fuel cells is being put into use in electric cars in which hydrogen fuel cells provide the motive power, rather than electric batteries. Hydrogen fuel cells can, and do overcome the problems encountered with battery-powered electric cars, such as small acceleration, low-velocity and short-driving range. As can be seen from Fig. 10, all of the major car companies of the world are now involved in the development and commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled motor vehicles. Most of these companies are preparing to offer hydrogen-fuelled cars in 2004.
2.10. Naval applications
Because it does not produce any harmful chemicals, due to its stealth characteristics, and because its higher efficiency will provide longer under water cruising range, the German Navy has decided to have its next generation of submarines incorporate hydrogen fuel cell power plants. Also, the Australian, Canadian and Italian navies are experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells in their submarines. (Fig. 11). Of course, because of the aforementioned characteristics, hydrogen is the right fuel for sea surface transportation, as well.
2.11. Space programs
Before 1974, hydrogen was used in rockets by the Soviet and the United States space programs. Now, the other countries, which have space programs, have joined them and are using hydrogen as the staple fuel of their space programs because of another unsurpassed, unmatched property of hydrogen — that of being the lightest fuel (Fig. 12).
2.12. Aerospace planes
Before 1974, there were no aerospace planes, which of course would have used hydrogen as fuel, because it is the fuel of choice for space programs. Today, we have the American shuttle visiting space, putting communication satellites and observation satellites in orbit, conducting various scientific experiments, and carrying the parts of the international space station. Russia has built a shuttle that can land automatically without a pilot being in charge. The European two plane Sänger System is on the drawing board. US Space Organization NASA is developing a single stage to orbit aerospace plane, named "VentureStar", to replace the present shuttle (Fig. 13). The contractors are Lockheed-Martin and Rocketdyne, a division of Boeing. It will use an aerospike rocket engine expected to run on "slush hydrogen" — a mixture of liquid and solid hydrogen — which makes use of another unique property of hydrogen, resulting in the reduction of storage size. The companies are now working on a one-third size concept demonstrator named X-33, which is scheduled to fly in 2002. There is no doubt that the experience gained will be of immense value in building tomorrow's hypersonic passenger transport — of course, to be fuelled by hydrogen.
2.13. Airplanes
Because of its light weight and excellent combustion characteristics, hydrogen is the ideal fuel for airplanes. In 1956, a Pratt & Whitney developed hydrogen-fuelled turbo-jet engine was mounted on one side of a B-57 bomber and some in-flight data were collected. After 1974, hydrogen-fuelled airplane activities have increased (Fig. 14). On April 15, 1988, the first passenger plane flew on a hydrogen-fuelled engine near Moscow. The Tupolev 155 (equivalent to an American Boeing 727) was equipped with two engines — one running on hydrogen, the other on jet fuel — a liquid hydrogen storage tank, and a hydrogen supply and control system. The plane took off and landed on jet fuel, but hydrogen was used during the cruising phase of the flight. The various aeronautical establishments of Russia and Tupolev Institute are now working on the design and development of an all-hydrogen supersonic passenger plane, which will be called the Tupolev 204.
On June 17, 1988, two months after the flight of the Soviet jet, Bill Conrad, a retired Pan American pilot, flew a hydrogen-fuelled single engine plane in Fort Lauderdale, FL. The flight lasted only 36 s, but the fact that it was fuelled entirely by hydrogen in take-off, flight and landing established a new record.
Actually, Mr. Conrad's plan was to taxi down the runway to the starting point, then take off, fly a few times above the airport and land, all on hydrogen fuel. Because hydrogen fuel is more efficient than conventional fuel, the plane suddenly lifted off the ground while taxiing. Mr. Conrad immediately reduced power, put the plane back on the runway, continued in his taxiing mode to the starting point, ready for the flight. The officials from the Civil Aeronautics Board and other recording agencies told Mr. Conrad that he had already established a record and there was no need for him to fly again.
The European Airbus Company has initiated a program of research and development work for a hydrogen-fuelled air transport. Their studies indicate that although hydrogen costs more than jet fuel, the airfares for hydrogen-fuelled air transportation would be competitive with today's airfares, because of the great weight and energy savings with (the much lighter) hydrogen fuel. Germany and Russia have signed an agreement of cooperation for the development of hydrogen-fuelled air transportation. Japan has initiated research and development work on a hypersonic transport, for which hydrogen is expected to be the fuel of choice, because of its excellent combustion properties, light weight and environmental compatibility.
2.14. Hydride applications
One of the unique properties of hydrogen is that it will combine with certain metals and alloys easily, in large amounts, forming hydrides in exothermic chemical reactions. When hydrides are supplied with heat, hydrogen is released. The temperature and pressure characteristics vary for different metals and alloys. Advantage is being taken of these properties for many electrochemical and thermochemical applications (Fig. 15). Smaller size hydrogen hydride batteries (e.g., for lap top computers), and larger batteries for electric cars have already been commercialized.
There are demonstration projects for hydrogen-hydride air conditioning, refrigeration and heat pumps. They do not need chlorofluorocarbons, and as such, they will not damage the ozone layer. Conversion to hydrogen-hydride air conditioning and refrigeration systems will put a definite stop to the ozone layer depletion.
2.15. Catalytic combustion
Another unique property of hydrogen is the flameless combustion or the catalytic combustion in the presence of small amounts of catalysts, such as platinum or palladium. Catalytic combustion applications have many advantages over those of flame combustion applications: They are safer and have higher second law efficiencies, as well as being environmentally compatible. Many residential and commercial appliances have been developed using this unique property of hydrogen (Fig. 16).
2.16. International programs
Today the German/Saudi Arabian Hy-Solar Project is producing solar hydrogen in the world's largest petroleum country. Saudi Arabians expect eventually to be the permanent exporters of energy in the form of solar hydrogen and they are preparing for it.
Euro-Quebec is another successful international program. They have been looking into applications of relatively inexpensive hydro power-produced liquid hydrogen imported to Europe from Canada — applications such as for city bus transportation and smelting of iron, as well as the development of an infrastructure for overseas transportation and storage of liquid hydrogen. Norway and Germany are working on a similar program.
The Japanese WE-NET Program is the most ambitious and comprehensive hydrogen program in the world. Japan expects to spend about 4 billion dollars by 2020 to achieve what amounts to a deliberate and planned way for conversion to hydrogen.
The International Space Station, which is now under construction, uses hydrogen for transportation, which will use hydrogen fuel cells to provide electricity and potable water, is another important international program based on hydrogen energy. Planning for the United Nations Industrial Development Organization's International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (to be established in Istanbul, Turkey) is moving ahead (Fig. 17).
2.17. International standards
Of course, no technology can take roots without standards, and no universal technology can be established without international standards. In 1990, the International Standards Organization, based in Geneva, Switzerland (which is now an affiliated organization of the United Nations), with the initiative and representations of Gustov Grob of Switzerland, decided that the time had arrived for preparing international standards for hydrogen energy technologies. They established, a committee, ISO/TC-197 Committee, to prepare such standards. During its first meeting, the Committee formed 10 sub-committees (Fig. 18) to work on the standards for Hydrogen Energy Technologies. It is gratifying to note that the committee's work is successfully moving ahead.
2.18. Building hydrogen economy
As you can gather from this overview, during the past quarter of a century, the fundamentals of the Hydrogen Energy System have been worked out, and strong foundations have been laid. As we enter the 21st Century, the development and commercialization of the various components of the Hydrogen Energy System are being accelerated. Our studies show that the world economy would essentially be based on Hydrogen Energy towards the end of the forthcoming three-quarters of a century, i.e., by 2074 (Fig. 19).
3. Concluding remarks
In one-quarter of a century — 1974–2000 — Hydrogen Energy has moved forward on all fronts; making in-roads in all areas of energy. Because of the unrelenting work of scientists, engineers and dreamers, such as the participants of the WHEC Conferences and the membership of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy. We can all rejoice in the progress made to date, and this progress has been substantial.
In the decades ahead of us, the progress will be many fold greater, and the Hydrogen Energy System will provide the Planet Earth, the only one known to be hospitable to life, with the energy system it deserves: clean, efficient, sustainable and abundant energy.
My friends, my colleagues, pioneers of the hydrogen age, your efforts will expedite the spread of the clean and abundant energy system, enhance the quality of the life for the peoples of the world, and help preserve our biosphere. I wish you Godspeed.
| Greetings from the President |
It is an immense privilege to follow in the footsteps of our founding President, Professor T. Nejat Veziroglu, who has helped shape the development of hydrogen energy technologies worldwide during the past half century by the establishment of the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (IJHE), and organizing the biennial World Hydrogen Energy Conferences (WHEC) on even years and the World Hydrogen Technologies Conventions (WHTC) on odd years. I have been extremely fortunate to have worked with Dr. Veziroglu since 1978, first as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Miami, and later as the first Assistant Editor, Associate Editor and Senior Associate Editor of IJHE. More recently I have worked with the incredibly dedicated board of directors of IAHE as an Executive Vice President.
As we approach the next half century of our association, mainstream applications of hydrogen energy technologies will continue to grow. Trends suggest that hydrogen energy technologies will be part of the least-cost solutions for decarbonizing our global economies. For example, hydrogen energy technologies already support low-carbon electricity systems dominated by intermittent renewable energy resources. As members of IAHE, we must convey that successful innovations in resilient energy technologies require that we have clear and consistent energy policies, both locally and globally.
One of our greatest global grand challenges in the future will be providing water, energy and food (WEF) for a growing global population. The significance of the challenges and opportunities of the WEF nexus as an interconnected system becomes apparent when we examine the current and future economic impact in the context of climate change. To deal with global problems, we need global solutions, and no one individual, company, industry sector, or government can do it alone. I pledge to continue support of international multilateral cooperation so we all can realize the benefits of a global hydrogen energy economy.
President, International Association for Hydrogen Energy.
| Purpose: |
The "Young scientists division" would share the same mission of IAHE in striving to advance the HYDROGEN ENERGY as the principal means to achieve the goal of an abundant and clean energy for mankind. The major emphasis of the Young Scientists Division will be on promoting young researchers involvement and training in international activities. To stimulate the exchange of information in Hydrogen Energy field, the Young Scientists Division will organizing international conferences and workshops and short courses, researcher exchange programs and will work to promote activities to inform the general public of the important role of Hydrogen Energy in the planning of an inexhaustible and clean energy system.
| Activities: |
- Mini Symposium of Young Scientists at WHEC 2012
- H2Roma
- HYSYDAYS-World Congress of Young Scientists on Hydrogen Energy Systems
| News: |
- Young Division organized the Mini Symposium of Young Scientists at WHEC 2012, that took place in Toronto from 3rd to the 7th June.
- During the Mini Symposium has been held the second meeting of Young Scientists Division (June 3rd 2012). Participants, coming from different countries, discussed about the future and the re-organization of Young Scientists Division.
- The first official meeting of the Young Scientist Division of IAHE was held on Thursday, 11 November 2010.
| Young Division Background: |
The division was born in 2009 in the framework of HYSYDAYS Congress. The YD has been created thanks to the efforts of Prof. Orecchini and his research group from the CIRPS - Interuniversity Research Centre for Sustainable Development, Sapienza - University of Rome. The group is involved in Renewable Energy Sources and sustainable mobility, having an active cluster in the field of hydrogen technologies and including many young researchers.
| Registration: |
For joining the IAHE Young Scientists Division please contact Valeria Valitutti.
For registration form please click here.
To see a list of current IAHE Chapter Schools please click here.
| Organization: |
| Honorary Chair: | Prof. Fabio Orecchini |
| Chair: | Chiara Fiori |
| Vice-Chair: | Bernard Jan Bladergroen |
| Treasurer and Secretary: | Valeria Valitutti |
Nuclear energy will have a major role in large-scale low-cost production of hydrogen in the future. The mission of the IAHE Nuclear Hydrogen Division is to organize and promote activities that foster development of nuclear systems for hydrogen production, including thermochemical cycles, electrolysis, and related elements such as safety and materials science.
Members of the IAHE Nuclear Hydrogen Division
How is hydrogen currently produced? The predominant existing processes use fossil fuels to produce hydrogen, such as steam methane reforming (SMR) or coal gasification. These are carbon-based technologies that lead to greenhouse gas emissions, and future costs of carbon capture and storage. A key challenge facing the future hydrogen economy is a sustainable, lower-cost method of producing hydrogen in large capacities. Nuclear based hydrogen generation by splitting of water provides a cleaner and compelling alternative to hydrogen production from fossil fuels.
Why nuclear energy to produce hydrogen? Nuclear energy provides a large-scale and low-carbon source of energy to produce hydrogen. The use of hydrogen in the production of transport fuels from crude oil and other hydrocarbons (such as oil sands) is increasing rapidly. Hydrogen is likely to become an important future fuel for CO2 emissions reduction by vehicles. Nuclear hydrogen production provides a flexible alternative to batteries for plug-in hybrid vehicles. Nuclear energy can be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis and thermochemical cycles without generating greenhouse gases. In the coming decades, energy demand for hydrogen production could exceed that for electricity production today.
How is nuclear energy used to produce hydrogen? The growth of nuclear energy’s role in hydrogen production in future decades is anticipated to include the following technologies: 1) electrolysis of water, particularly using off-peak capacity; 2) high-temperature electrolysis of steam, using heat and electricity from nuclear reactors; and 3) high-temperature direct production of hydrogen with thermochemical cycles, such as sulfur-based and copper-chlorine cycles.
Worldwide nuclear hydrogen programs (source: CEA, France)
Electrolysis. Electrolysis of water is an existing commercial technology that decomposes water into oxygen and hydrogen gas due to an electric current being passed through the water. It provides a stable and predictable cost of hydrogen not linked to commodity prices such as natural gas. It also enables a robust and reliable hydrogen supply due to modular electrolysis platforms and grid electricity backup. High-temperature electrolysis (HTE), or steam electrolysis, uses electricity to produce hydrogen from steam, instead of liquid water. This method can potentially achieve higher efficiencies than standard electrolysis of water. Technical challenges to commercialization include the development of high-temperature materials and membranes.
Thermochemical water-splitting cycles. Cycles of thermochemical water splitting consist of chemical and physical processes that are connected together to form a closed internal loop that re-cycles all compounds on a continuous basis, without emitting any greenhouse gases. Leading examples include the sulfur-iodine cycle (maximum operating temperature of about 850oC) and copper-chlorine cycle (530oC). These cycles have the potential of higher efficiency and large-scale production rates. Technological challenges include high temperature and corrosive operating conditions, materials of construction and scale-up to large industrial plants. The interface between a nuclear reactor and the hydrogen plant involves heat exchangers that transfer heat at elevated temperatures between the plants, new safety and regulatory issues that will need to be developed, and supporting systems for chemical processes including hydrogen and oxygen storage.
Visualization of future nuclear and thermochemical hydrogen plants
Schematic of copper-chlorine (Cu-Cl) cycle
Nuclear hydrogen future. Nuclear hydrogen production is a potentially major solution to the problems of climate change and depleting conventional fuels. Hydrogen is a clean fuel that does not release carbon dioxide when burned. It can be used to heat our homes, power our equipment, supply fuel for vehicles, and many other everyday applications that currently use oil, coal or natural gas. It also has many other industrial needs. Hydrogen is needed by petrochemical, agricultural (ammonia for fertilizers), manufacturing, food processing, electronics, plastics, metallurgical, aerospace and other industries. Production of biofuels and other synfuels requires hydrogen.
Visualization of future nuclear hydrogen infrastructure
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President: Ioan IORDACHE